Personhood and Abortion Essay

The topic of personhood and abortion is a very controversial one. I agree with Marquis and Thomson’s theory on how personhood does not settle the ethical debate on abortion. Therefore, I will explain Don Marquis’s argument, his critique of the traditional pro-life argument, why this argument is far off from the general idea of what a person is and why I agree with his argument. Then, I will discuss Judith Thomson’s argument and why I believe the Burglars and Seed People argument is the most persuasive. Lastly, I will describe what I believe the definition of a person is. Towards the beginning of Marquis’s article he states, â€Å"The anti-abortionist charges, not unreasonably, that pro-choice principles concerning killing are too narrow to be acceptable; the pro-choicer charges, not unreasonably, that anti-abortionist principles concerning killing are too broad to be acceptable†¦All this suggests that a necessary condition of resolving the abortion controversy is a more theoretical account of the wrongness of killing. † (92) I agree that personhood alone does not solve the issue of abortion. His article discusses the principle concerning the wrongness of killing. This principle entails that it is wrong to destroy cancer-cell cultures or any other human cell cultures that are done in a lab. This is far-off from what the general idea of a person is. Cells and a person share little of the same characteristics; therefore, the anti-abortionist’s principle is too broad. Marquis says, â€Å"Killing adults is wrong because it deprives them of their future. But in killing a fetus, we are also depriving it of its future. Thus, it seems inconsistent to object to one but not the other. (90) Basically, he is saying that if we think killing an adult is wrong then we ought to think that killing a fetus is wrong. Marquis concentrates on applying that personhood doesn’t matter when arguing about abortion because most arguments involving personhood are too narrow or too broad in scope. What matters is the fact that killing is depriving one of one’s future. This princ iple even suggests that fetuses at an early stage of pregnancy fall under the wrongness of killing idea. Marquis also discusses how the pro-choicer believes in a moral principle concerning the wrongness of killing that fetuses do not fall under. He says that this principle is too narrow in scope and does not embrace enough. This principle would allow for the killing of infants that were mentally handicapped or ill. I agree with Marquis’s concept on how personhood does not settle this controversial issue. Just being a person does not explain why abortion is wrong. As Marquis discusses, the wrongness comes from the loss of one’s life deprives one of the future. Judith Jarvis Thomson’s article begins with her saying, â€Å"Most opposition to abortion relies on the premise that the fetus is a human being, a person, from the moment of conception. I think that the premise is false, that the fetus is not a person from the moment of conception. A newly fertilized ovum, a newly implanted clump of cells, is no more a person than an acorn is an oak tree. † (97) The first premise of the Potential Persons Argument says, â€Å"If it is wrong to kill persons, it is wrong to kill potential persons. † (Lecture) Thomson believes that potentially being something or someone does not give one the rights of actually being that something or someone. Therefore, a freshly implanted clump of cells in a female is no different than a new acorn growing to potentially become an oak tree. An acorn is just a potential oak tree; there is no guarantee that it indeed will grow into an oak tree, just as a clump of cells has the potential to grow into a human, but there is no guarantee this will happen. Thomson uses an interesting example in her argument. A violinist is dying and only you have the right blood type to save him. You are kidnapped overnight and the violinist’s circulatory system is plugged into yours. You have to stay plugged into him until he gets better. It is permissible for you to choose to disconnect yourself from him because you did not consent. The same idea would apply to rape and incest. Thomson says, â€Å"Even supposing a case in which a woman pregnant due to rape ought to allow the unborn person to use her body for the hour he needs, we should not conclude that he has a right to do so; we should conclude that she is self-centered, callous, indecent, but not unjust, if she refuses. † (108) This quote explains why the violinist theory would apply to rape and incest. Thomson also uses the Seed People argument, which I believe is the most persuasive argument. There are â€Å"seed people† who float in the air, land on your carpet and grow into adults. Because of this, you buy preventive screens, but the seed people pass through the screen and take root. It is permissible to get rid of the seed people because you did take preventative measures. This argument implies that abortion would be permissible if the mother did take preventative actions while having intercourse and still got pregnant. I agree with Thomson on this. If a woman is on birth control and uses a condom while having intercourse and she still gets pregnant, then it should be morally permissible for her to get an abortion. It is normal for adults to have an urge for intercourse and I believe they should be able to do so even if they do not want a baby. Intercourse is not just about pleasure, but about love as well. Therefore, it should be permissible for adults who have had protected intercourse to get an abortion. Some people might object to Thomson’s theory on the seed people because you are still â€Å"killing† a person. But, you have the right to what happens in your body and therefore I believe you have the right to make the decision for an abortion. Overall, I agree with Thomson’s article. I like that she starts with a controversial pro-life argument and then finishes with a pro-choice conclusion. She used great analogies when presenting her arguments. What makes up a person is another controversial issue. In my opinion, a person is a self-conscious or rational being with the ability to reason and a notion of self-identity. Although, I think an individual’s definition of a person may be based upon whether they believe abortion is morally permissible or not. One might try to fix the definition of personhood in order to get the desired outcome about abortion. For example, an individual who thinks abortion is morally permissible might define a person as someone who has the ability to reason, ability to consent, ability to control one’s attention and action, ability to communicate, and ability to be morally responsible. By this definition, a fetus would not really be a person because fetuses can not do all of these things. Therefore, abortion would be morally permissible because the fetus is not a person.

Destination Attributes

Investigating destination attributes, tourist motivation and travel values of the Bengali community in London to Coxs Bazar, Bangladesh 2. Introduction: Today tourism has been considered as a great phenomenon Involving movement of Industry In the world. In tourism Industry, more than 235 million people employment opportunities generating around 9. 2% of global GDP (WTTC, 2010).The tourism Is sharply Increasing In spite of having global economic downturn, even during the first two months of 2010 worldwide the number of International tourist arrivals raised by % (WTO, 2010). The World Tourism 2020 Vlslon forecasted that the world tourist arrivals will reach to 1,561. 1 million In 2020. The fastest growing tourism regions are in the Third World countries and Bangladesh is one of them to be flourished and promoted significantly and effectively (Echtner and Prasad, 2002).Cox's Bazar, a place of tourist's paradise with natural and man-made artistic attractions is ready to welcome the touri sts around the globe. The increasing trend of tourism industry indicates some vital factors to the host community and tourists such as economic evelopment, greater scopes for understanding, making stronger regional bonding, exchange of cultural beliefs and values, refreshment and entertainment, education, spiritual enlightenment, sustainable development and many more. 3.Research aim and objectives: The aim of this research study is to explore three dimensions of tourist behavior regarding destination attributes, motivational factors and travel values of the Bengali community in selecting Cors Bazar as a tourist destination. There are some specific research objectives to carry out the aim which are as follows: i. To study about the tourism resources and attractions currently offered to the tourists, li. To analyze the push and pull factors related with the choice of a tourist destination, ill.To Investigate various travel values regarding destination attributes of the participants In selecting a tourist destination. 4. Statement of the research problem: The tourist market share and revenues are comparatively lower than neighbour countries even though Bangladesh Is endowed with enormous destination attractions due to the lack of promotional activities, the Ignorance about the motivational factors nd the overall apathy about the travel values of all the tourists vlsltlng Cox's Bazar (Patwarl, 1 993; Hossain, 1999; Hossain and Hossain, 2002). . Research questions and hypotheses: On the basis of the research problem, there are few research questions along with relevant hypotheses formulated which are given below: Q-1 : What are features of Cox's Bazar as a tourist destination? H-1: New, innovative and unique features of a destination always attract tourists. Q-1 : Are the destination attractions accessible for the tourists in electronically and physically? H-2: Knowing information prior about a ourist destination.Q-3: Is it offering both push and pull factors to me et the tourist's need, want and demand? H-3: Sometimes, tourists want to get rid of boredom and monotony while others prefer to visit friends, families and relatives. Q-4: How are the travel values Judged towards future tourism development and tourist's satisfaction? H-4: The feedback from the tourists focuses on the pros and cons of a tourist destination as an integral part of future development initiatives. 6.Rationale: There are different Journals and books studied and explored regarding tourism, ourist attraction, promotional tools and destination development especially in terms of different factors associated with destination attractions, tourist/travel motivation and travel values. The brief description of some of those literatures have been mentioned and discussed beforehand in the section of previous research studies. There are only a very few concerned literatures and research studies available about Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh especially in the field of tourist/travel motivati on and travel values.However, Meng et al. (2008) studied the effects of gender differences on the erceptions of destination attributes, tourist motivation and travel values and leading to further research opportunity in another location. In addition, Kim et al. (2002) and Hong et al. (2009) analyzed the relationship between push and pull factors in tourist/ travel motivation and revisiting a destination and indicates for future study opportunity on the interaction of tourist/travel motivation and travel values for tourist market expansion.Furthermore, there is also a further research opportunity to Justify the relationship between push and pull factors of foreign tourists for greater nderstanding about tourist behavior in a broad context studied by Bashar et al. (2008). Thus, this research study can assist to understand the tourist behavior in three main dimensions including destination attributes, tourist/travel motivation and travel values of the Bengali community in London to Cox 's Bazar, Bangladesh which could contribute to the body of knowledge.The above discussion highlights the further research scopes in different aspects of tourism especially to attract more tourists to Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh for which this research study will be carried out to nhance the body of knowledge. In this study, the feedback will be evaluated from the tourists those who visited or visit Cox's Bazar about tourism amenities used in their stay as well as their feelings towards their overall satisfaction level.The promotional tools and feelings about the tourism resources will be assessed to find out more effective promotional methods and ways of further tourism resources development to meet the current and increasing tourism market demand. This is optimistic to achieve the desired objectives through this research study. 7. Literature review: Tourism is the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the interaction of tourists, business suppliers, host governments and h ost communities in the process of attracting and hosting these tourists and other visitors (Goeldner et al. 2000). Moreover, the term tourism' means the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive primary focus on understanding tourist/travel behavior based on destination attributes, factors of tourist/travel motivation and travel values of the Bengali ommunity in London to Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh. 7. 1 Previous Research Studies: Tourism is a multifaceted industry and opens doors for both the host and tourist on behalf of a destination country as a medium of exchange.Tourism is an important tool for local economic development as well as infrastructural growth. Promoting the local residents and tourism-related stakeholders are essential to achieve a tourism- led development in a tourist destination area (Matarrita, 2010). Tourism is comprised with various components like accommodation, dining establishment s, recreational roperties, tourism attractions, travel intermediaries, transportation and other supporting sectors in which the people can be involved in different ways.These tourism elements act as destination attributes and have a great influential role in economic development, practicing cultural beliefs and values, environmental protection, preservation of historical sites, natural and artificial tourism attractions after all, to all of the destination attributes (Blake et al. , 2008; Tao et al. , 2009). In promoting destination attributes, the host government along with the involvement of nternational, national, regional and local organizations is required to be well coordinated to the potential tourists (Soshiroda, 2005).In this process, the tourism stakeholders are encouraged to take part in decision-making, sharing benefits, developing opportunities and utilizing the tourism resources for local and tourism industrys interests in a pro-active manner (Tosun, 2005). Education a nd training among local people can represent a good impression as part of destination attributes (Echtner, 1995; Sebele, 2010). Tourism attraction is a function of a site (destination attribute), a marker (an informative lement) and a tourist (Richards, 2002).However, the tourists are positively inclined to discounted facilities, promotional offers and take risk to those destinations but good knowledge can moderate this intention (Wong et al. , 2009). Many researchers have investigated tourist/travel motivation from different views like sociology, psychology and anthropology (Maslow, 1970; Cohen, 1972; Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1977). In this research study, the tourist/travel motivation focuses on the analysis of two different aspects namely push factors and pull factors that have been are ommonly accepted and practiced (Yuan et al. 1990; Uysal et al. , 1993). In these terminologies, push factors describe the internal forces of people for which they are pushed to travel whereas pull fa ctors state the external forces of destination attributes that appeal the potential tourists/travelers to travel there. Push factors include intangible or intrinsic aspirations of the individual tourist/traveler. On the other hand, pull factors consist of those elements which emerge the destination attractiveness as it is perceived by the tourists/travelers.These may contain tangible estination attributes, marketed image of the destination, tourist's perception and benefit expectation (Baloglu et al. , 1996). Push and pull factors in tourist/travel motivation are also influenced in different settings like nationalities, tourist destinations and events to select a destination finally Gang et al. , 2006). These intrinsic and extrinsic factors develop the perceptions of an individual tourist/ actual destination attributes and how the tourist/traveler processes information (Gartner, 1993; Dann, 1996; Baloglu et al. 1997). These motivational factors act ogether in a dynamic and evolving context in destination selection process (Correira, 2000) and the tourist/travel motivation is seen as a multidimensional concept that focuses on tourist decision (McCabe, 2000). Tourism is a paradigm of human beings and human nature and it is always a complex task to find out the reasons, needs and wants of the tourists for travelling to a particular destination (Yoon et al. , 2005).The tourists expect their participation in destination attractions (instrumental performance) and the psychological interpretation of a destination product expressive attributes) to fulfill their requirements and develop travel values (Noe et al. , 2003). In tourism industry, push and pull factors represent demand (tourist/ traveler's desires) and supply (tourist destination attributes). In some cases, higher cost of travel, government regulations, destination image and reputation, international political situations, personal safety issues, fear of terrorism, health epidemics play a vital in selecting a destination (Prideaux, 2005).The preconceived image of a destination (Bosque et al. , 2008), variety seeking tendency, gender ifferences (Meng et al. , 2008), partner's influence, satisfactory level of previous experience, personal feelings and preferences are closely related with the perceptions of destination attributes, tourist/travel motivation and travel values (Hong et al. , 2009). There is a need of well coordination among push and pull factors as like as the tourists/travelers would be benefitted based on their motives from the destination attributes in an effective manner.

Analysis of the Research of Professor Zachary Holman Essay

Analysis of the Research of Professor Zachary Holman - Essay Example Subsequently, the research conducted by Zachary Holman addresses the vital uses of nanoparticles in electronic devices and solar devices. Consequently, the research highlights the properties exhibited by the nanoparticle and the effect that each property has in regard to the functioning of the nanoparticles. Zachary Holman in his research tries to answer the scientific question of whether it is viable to produce inexpensive power using the full spectrum of sunlight as the source of the energy production. The viability of the energy production by the sunlight rays is at any time of day. Moreover, the research paper by Zachary Holman attempts to answer the scientific question of the possibility of the nanoparticles in the solar energy to produce sustainable power enough for human consumption. The nanoparticle produces energy using the properties that already exist within the micro-nanoparticles. In his research project concerning Solar Concentrating Photovoltaic Mirrors, Zachary Holman discusses the optics technology. The optics technology entails the use of products and materials such as the curved mirrors and lenses. The reason for conducting the project is to discover means of concentrating sunlight over a smaller surface area of photovoltaic cells in order to generate power. The heat skins product, which has a relationship with the research that Zachary Holman is undertaking, helps keep the solar cells cool. The technological design of the photovoltaic concentrators is also relatable to the research that Zachary Holman is currently conducting.  

Behaviour, Decision & Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Behaviour, Decision & Markets - Essay Example Proponents of such controversial experiments believe that most people’s behaviors are well explained by self-interest assumptions. This left other-regarding preferences to be viewed as forces of retaliation from the strengths of the self-interest perspectives (GaI?chter, S & Nosenzo, 2011). The experiment of quickly converging markets became applicable to confirm the hypothesis that is opposing to the other-preference hypothesis. On the contrary, supporters of other preference theory performed the bargain and corporation experiment, which disputed the outcomes of the quickly converging markets. They recommended that the self-interest hypothesis findings were premature and are not rationally applicable in explaining the fundamental aspects of human behavior. The self-interested decision choices are simple and are majorly used when dealing with straightforward and human behavior that is so easy to understand. Complex and hard to comprehend human behavior can only be explained us ing the other preference theory (GaI?chter, S & Nosenzo, 2011). Deducing from such concrete evidence, the question that remains unanswered is not whether self- interest is the choice or other preference. It is only important to note that in what conditions we can say that this or that condition has both economic and social effects. Hence, which is the best guideline to give a description and model these preferences. For example, other regarding preferences do not thrive well in competitive markets but this cannot be used to make conclusions that they do not exist. This impact is only realizable with rational individuals who will find it prudent not to expose their other-preference behavior in such market conditions since they are aware that they will never reap the outcomes given that the effects are not felt, in addition, the efforts to do the previously mentioned may be so costly (GaI?chter, S & Nosenzo, 2011). Outside the competitive markets where other-preference model can be ap plied has a series of economic activities that take place. These activities may be in small markets with small traders, markets with undefined frictions, contractually enforceable firms and organizations with contracts, which are incomplete and unenforceable. The models with self- interest assumptions may most of the time result into predictions, which are unpredictable and misleading with those made by other preference models being quite accurate. The economist stresses the fact that other people may be strongly convicted to serving others right by making sure that there welfare is in the right place, with a lot of justice and reciprocity. On the contrary, experiments also have it there are other individuals who are extremely callous and selfish, they don’t give regards to the welfare of the others even when such opportunities are availed to them at relatively low or no costs (GaI?chter, S & Nosenzo, 2011). The relation between such two completely contrasting individuals pre sents a strategic setting for managers in organizations to analyze behavior and find out what exists and defines fairness and selfishness. The derivations will tend to give explanations as to whether some people will tend to behave in a just and fairness in some settings in very different environmental conditions while it is the same people who will behave extremely

'In the present era of globalisation, control over the movement of Essay

'In the present era of globalisation, control over the movement of people has become the last bastion of sovereignty. Nowhere - Essay Example In this third wave of globalization and post modernism where international migration is restricted against all its cultural and political norms. This expulsion of human mobility from the globalization definition leaves it as a narrow concept of expansion where it’s ethical, economic and political existence comes in conflict with sustainability. Besides all aspects of globalization, this barrier to international human mobility also comes under violation of international law where freedom to move freely is under attack. This asymmetrical nature of globalization defines the exploitation of this term being used for interests of certain groups which have been promoting free exchange of goods by liberalizing economies and diminishing barriers to free mobility of goods yet are keen to impose restrictions on migration. Barriers can be justified by the number of migrations, in all past era migration figures were way smaller than the total population but the first wave of globalization registered the massive migration of around 3%. ... It resembles the inconsistency and incompatibility of such asymmetric policies which at one hand support growth of liberalization while on the other hand attempt to contain it. This irregularity in policies has led to many international crimes against humanities of which the most prominent in this regard is the human trafficking (POOLEY & WHYTE, 1991). This evolving humanitarian crisis and inconsistent policies demand great attention and oversight for governance and policy making which ensures human rights of migration and also maintains the ethical, political and economic values of globalization. Human migration has always been the same as people move from developing countries to developed countries whereas in the first wave of globalization, Asia, Latin America, South Asia, Africa, Caribbean and Baltic states have been the major outsourcer of labours to America, Europe, Middle East, Australia and Japan etc. (TALANI, 2010). The figures for human trafficking stands around one out of every tenth migrant who cross borders with no permission and papers. Migration statistics sufficiently proves the argument that immense migration has resulted an unprecedented growth of population to the recipient countries which now has become a threat to the sovereignty of these states particularly to their security and in general to their domestic culture, values, norms and religion. Critical analysis require information from both sides, no doubt international migration has been enormous to the developed world but there is no evidence that they have spoiled the growth of recipient country so, the ultimate result is still to be revealed. In case of Europe where domestic population if greying; in case of America baby boomers have reached to their retirement; it can be said

An Unequal Division of Labour in the Medical Profession Essay

An Unequal Division of Labour in the Medical Profession - Essay Example An important goal for medical education today is professional development including gender equality and awareness of gender issues. Medical school is the breeding background for not only medical knowledge but also for professional development and careers, including equal opportunities and gender equality. In order to understand how unequal the division of labour in the medical profession actually is and the process of how it has changed from the past to the present, the following points must be considered: Historically both the gendered role of nursing and the sex of nurses were almost exclusively female. More than half of the people involved in health care have always been women. Historically, women were considered healers, and it was they who gave almost all the medical help that was available until two centuries ago. It may well be said that most practical medicines were in the hands of women in the past times. Even though women were more often than not completely ignored when applying for admittance to medical schools, it was almost solely women, who gathered herbs and infused them into vegetable remedies, bathed the arthritic and manipulated their joints, and looked after pregnant women and delivered their babies. â€Å"However in classical Egypt for many centuries women had a significant role as physicians, notably in the medical schools at Heliopolis and Sais.† (Carr, n.d.). During the dark ages, the best-known woman was Hildegarde of Bingen (1098-1179), who apparently had visions explained to her in Latin by a voice from heaven, and concluded by writing two medical manuscripts on plant animal and mineral medicines, and on physiology and the nature of the disease. Women were also involved in folk, alternative, and commercial medicine at this time, although many notable women who specialized in these areas are hard to classify.

Nursing research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 40

Nursing research - Essay Example Thus, it is important to create a good methodology for the investigation held. This section should make readers familiar with the main purpose of your research and the ways and methods you are going to use to reach the goals. A person who wants to implement the same research that you did should be able to receive all the corresponding information from your methodology section. He/she should understand the main goal of the research and the ways you offer to reach these goals. This section should include everything that should belong to it, not much or less. - Write your thoughts about the following: When reviewing research or preparing a literature review, nurses should consider the level of evidence. How might levels of evidence influence nursing practice? In the field of nursing it is very difficult to have and express your own opinion. All the further investigations should be based on the previous ones and the acknowledged experience. All the innovations in the field of medicine should go through a great of number of important tests to be acknowledged as really helpful for human health. Thus, a literature review is a very important section of the research in the field of nursing and the whole research should be thoroughly based on

Procurement route Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Procurement route - Essay Example The clients specify the budgetary constraints to the consultant who are then supposed to determine the targets and requirements from the business case prepared by the client. As the requirements and specification are prepared by different entities, certain amount of time is spent in the transformation and is hence slow in comparison to other approaches. This approach has also not been found to be suitable for complex construction projects due to a lack of prolonged involvement of the client in the design and build, due to which there is a gap between desired outcomes and the actual implementation. There is a greater degree of sub-contracting of certain aspects of the construction to specialized sub contractors due to which work progresses on numerous fronts simultaneously, which is why it is suitable for fast-track and complex projects. An additional management contractor is employed to maintain correspondence with all elements connected with the project involved in the project. This way, the management contractor has full freedom to choose specialized companies to handle specific works of the project qualitatively and at a brisk pace. This approach also provides less cost certainty as both design and construction commence at the same time, which means adjustments and modifications to cost, budget and raw materials always take place. The preceding paragraphs have described the various procurement routes that have evolved as part of the process of procurement. However, not all are suitable in the current context of the issue surrounding the Conlon’s Chemicals site. As such, it is deemed appropriate to evaluate each procurement approach with the given problem and arrive at the most suitable procurement route. The client in this case has only specified the budget and has made it clear that the cost of the two projects have to stay within the specified budget. When considering the traditional

Role of Elders in the Asian Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Role of Elders in the Asian Culture - Essay Example Families, communities, societies, and nations have been promoted by the elderly people during their lives. More importantly, children are educated, cared, and nurtured by the parents and elders in the Asian culture. Therefore, parents deserve comfort, love, and respect throughout their lives from their youngsters and children. In other words, caring and respecting elders and parents is the moral and ethical obligation of children in the Asian region. In this regard, it is the responsibility of elders to take care of their youngsters, love them, and keep guiding them throughout their lives. On the other hand, American or British culture allows the individuals to start making their own decisions in their adolescent age, which is very contrary with the norms and values of the Asian culture. For instance, teachers are often allowed to be strict with the young students in Asian schools, or elders often treat youngsters in a harsh way, which is very different, as compared with the American culture. (Blackkaby, 1998) In brief, role that is played by old people is affected significantly by the cultural differences, as role and respect changes to a higher extent in different cultures. (Huntington, 2000) In East-Asian culture, a notable tradition is specifically practiced in this region, which is referred as filial piety. China, Japan, and Korea are some of the cultures that have the dominated practice of such practice. Care for the elderly is the most imperative and foremost obligation of this tradition. (Lee, 2004) Moreover, elderly people in these cultures play a guiding role to nurture their youngsters in an emotional, as well as, spiritual manner. In the Asian context, parents and elders must provide shelter, care, and assistance to the youngsters in emotional, as well as, financial manner, which is once again, contrary to the Western culture, which obligates

Anne Tyler's Digging to America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Anne Tyler's Digging to America - Essay Example Although the novel's perspective shifts among its many characters, Sami's mother Maryam is at its narrative and emotional heart, who carefully tries to preserve her 'outsiderness'' and despite having emigrated from Iran almost 40 years earlier, is frequently perplexed by her son and daughter-in-law's ongoing relationship with the loud, opinionated, unapologetically American Donaldson. Anne Tyler uses the story of the families' growing friendship to explore what it means to be American . Two families keep in touch and meet every year to celebrate the day when they adopted two little girls from Korea. The Donaldsons and Yazdans have very different approaches to non-biological parenthood - Brad and Bitsy, "whose cultural sensitivity verges on aggression" (Schillinger, 2006), insist on calling their daughter Jin-ho, a Korean birth name, and dress her in Korean clothes while trying to retain the ethnic heritages of her daughter. Ziba and Sami Yazdan, in contrast, do their best to Americanize their daughter - the original name Sooki is replaced by more American Susan, which is also "a comfortable sound for Iranians to pronounce" (Matthews, 2006) and the way of life does not seem to be Korean for a girl. Despite the opposite brining up approaches the families maintain their relationship, and the reason is no

Leadership vs. Management Essay Example for Free

Leadership vs. Management Essay Leadership and management must go hand in hand. They are not the same thing. But they are necessarily linked, and complementary. The manager’s job is to plan, organise and coordinate. The leader’s job is to inspire and motivate. In his 1989 book â€Å"On Becoming a Leader,† Warren Bennis composed a list of the differences: the manager administers the leader innovates the manager is a copy the leader is an original the manager maintains the leader develops the manager focuses on systems and structures the leader focuses on people the manager relies on control the leader inspires trust the manager has a short-range view the leader has a long-range perspective the manager asks how and when the leader asks what and why the manager has his/her eye always on the bottom line the leader’s eye is on the horizon the manager imitates the leader originates the manager accepts the status quo the leader challenges it the manager is the classic good soldier the leader is his/her own person the manager does things right the leader does the right thing Leadership Attributes of a leader: Studies, and develops ideas and principles Innovates Resourceful and looks for solutions to problems Empathetic with a focus on people Inspires trust among stakeholders Understands the big picture Superior listening skills Courageously challenges the state of affairs, and asks why and what can be improved Looks for opportunities to develop strengths Develops a following A leader’s specific roles are determined through the four basic leadership responsibilities of directing, coaching, supporting and delegating. Specific responsibilities will fall into one of these four categories. In leadership practice, one must master skills in all areas in order to effectively lead others under their direction. Developing strengths in each of the four leadership roles allows a leader to read specific situations accurately and know what communication style is best applied. Directing Directing refers to how to keep work tasks and activities on the right track. A leader’s direction is what makes or breaks problem solving as well as determines the effectiveness of an approach to an assignment or task, the maintaining of momentum until its completion, and whether it is done by deadline. There are several ways to generate good direction techniques. These include: Explain things completely and include the ‘why’s’ Leaders learn early on that the best way to gain support and trust from their employees is to explain all things in their entirety. Once people understand why something is important or necessary, they generally rally to the call of that which needs to be done or addressed. Remain visible Leaders understand the power of their presence at all times. Nothing deflates the workforce’s motivation and desire to achieve more than to be left on their own with no visible means of support or direction. Objectively consider opposing points of view Leaders consider situations, problems and solutions from various viewpoints, as the input from as many individuals as possible expands their capabilities to effectively frame their direction. Coaching Coaching refers to when a leader knows where he or she wants to go and remains in control of the task but needs to lead others in developing a mutual support network. Coaching instils the desire to achieve and builds a dialogue bridge between the leader and those under his or her charge. This  motivates employees and positively changes attitudes toward the work assignment. To do this effectively a leader must make an effort to: Incorporate the word ‘we’ into all conversations Effective leaders eliminate the word â€Å"I† because it denotes a singular rather than cooperative effort. The very meaning of the term â€Å"coaching† implies a team effort. Listen for objections and areas of misunderstanding Effective leaders who coach well develop the skill of eliminating objections by developing an effective dialogue and creating clear and concise responses. Offer explanations addressing the ‘why’s, what’s and how’s’ of the problem or task at hand Good coaching depends upon complete understanding. Motivation and confidence comes from understanding the expectations a leader has of those involved in a given task, assignment or problem solving situation. Supporting Managers cannot be effective leaders unless they actively hone their supporting skills. People look warmly on leaders who actively work to support them emotionally as well as physically. When leaders actively work to support the people under their charge they: Acknowledge individual efforts with comments of praise and positive support Leaders are not afraid to say â€Å"thank you,† or â€Å"you’re doing a great job,† or whatever it takes to instil confidence in an individual. Disclose their own feelings openly and honestly Leaders are not afraid to reveal their â€Å"inner self.† Trust and loyalty are built on disclosing inward feelings, concerns and desires. Readily and honestly opening up builds encouragement and perseverance on both sides. Never hesitate to ask, ‘What’s wrong?’ Leaders allow themselves to get into the thick of a situation or task, and are quick to share the decision making responsibility, but know when to relinquish control in order to gain extra participation and involvement. Delegating Leaders know and understand their people. They know their strengths and weaknesses as well as what motivates and frustrates them. Effective delegating relies on the ability to select the proper person for the specific task or role. Leaders develop good delegation skills by: Briefing the delegate Leaders leave nothing to chance when they delegate. When delegating, it is vital to explain exactly what expectations the leader has of the delegated individual. Having confidence in the person they select Leaders do not select individuals for an assignment according to their job descriptions or the salaries they command, they look for people with the skills, abilities, perseverance and motivation to get the job done and done well. Not abdicating responsibility, but allowing individuals to decide a best course of action for themselves Leaders monitor and weigh these individual decisions, but never advance their own leadership position for a particular course of action unless they assess  it to be the best one. Understanding Theories of Leadership Trait Theory of Leadership Trait Theory of Leadership is based on the assumption that people are born with inherited traits and some traits are particularly suited to leadership. People who make effective leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits and great leaders has some common personality characteristics. Traits/skills generally believed to be possessed by leaders can be classified into categories such as: Physical characteristics (e.g. age; height; weight; alertness; energetic); Background characteristics (e.g. education; social status; mobility; experience); Intelligence characteristics (e.g. ability; judgement; knowledge; clever {intelligent}; conceptually skilled; creative; knowledgeable about group task; intellectual breadth); Personality characteristics (e.g. aggressiveness; alertness; dominance; decisiveness; enthusiasm; extroversion; independence; self-confidence; authoritarianism; assertive; tolerant of stress); Task-Oriented characteristics (e.g. achievement needs; responsibility; initiative; persistence; ambitiousness; achievement-orientated; decisive; persistent; willingness to assume responsibility; organised {administrative ability}; Social characteristics (e.g. supervisory ability; cooperativeness; popularity; prestige; tact; diplomacy; adaptability; cooperative; dependable; tactful; persuasive; socially skilled; emotional stability and composure; good interpersonal skills). Look at the Social Characteristics above. Be honest with yourself and write down those characteristics you feel you have and those that you feel you still need to work on. Behavioural theories Behavioural psychology, also known as behaviourism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning. Behavioural theories focus on how leaders behave and assume that leaders can be â€Å"made†, rather than born, and successful leadership is based on definable, learnable behaviour. Theory X and Theory Y Theory X and Theory Y framework proposed by McGregor in his classic book â€Å"The Human Side of Enterprise† (1960) consists of two alternative set of assumptions. Theory X perceives employees to be lazy, irresponsible and untrustworthy, while according to theory Y employees are approached as one of the most valuable assets of the company. Your management style is strongly influenced by your beliefs and assumptions about what motivates members of your team. If you believe that team members dislike work, you will tend towards an authoritarian style of management; on the other hand, if you assume that employees take pride in doing a good job, you will tend to adopt a more participative style. Theory X Theory X assumes that employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working, and this encourages an authoritarian style of management. According to this view, management must actively intervene to get things  done. This style of management assumes that workers: Dislike working. Avoid responsibility and need to be directed. Have to be controlled, forced, and threatened to deliver whats needed. Need to be supervised at every step, with controls put in place. Need to be enticed to produce results; otherwise they have no ambition or incentive to work. X-Type organisations tend to be top heavy, with managers and supervisors required at every step to control workers. There is little delegation of authority and control remains firmly centralised. McGregor recognised that X-Type workers are in fact usually the minority, and yet in mass organisations, such as large scale production environment, X Theory management may be required and can be unavoidable. Theory Y Theory Y explains a participative style of management that is de-centralised. It assumes that employees are happy to work, are self-motivated and creative, and enjoy working with greater responsibility. It assumes that workers: Take responsibility and are motivated to fulfil the goals they are given. Seek and accept responsibility and do not need much direction. Consider work as a natural part of life and solve work problems imaginatively. This more participative management style tends to be more widely applicable. In Y-Type organisations, people at lower levels of the organisation are involved in decision making and have more responsibility. Contingency theories Fiedler’s contingency model The Fiedler Contingency Model asks you to think about your natural leadership style, and the situations in which it will be most effective. The model says that leaders are either task-focused, or relationship-focused. Once you understand your style, it says that you can match it to situations in which that style is most effective. Fiedler’s model consists of 3 primary elements: Leader-Member Relations – This is the level of trust and confidence that your team has in you. A leader who is more trusted and has more influence with the group is in a more favourable situation than a leader who is not trusted. Task Structure – This refers to the type of task youre doing: clear and structured, or vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the team and leader have little knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed unfavourably. Leaders Position Power – This is the amount of power you have to direct the group, and provide reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more favourable your situation. Fiedler identifies power as being either strong or weak. There are some criticisms of the Fiedler Contingency Model. One of the biggest is lack of flexibility. Fiedler believed that because our natural leadership style is fixed, the most effective way to handle situations is to change the leader. He didnt allow for flexibility in leaders. Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory states that instead of using just one style, successful leaders should change their leadership styles based on the maturity of the people theyre leading and the details of the task. Using this theory, leaders should be able to place more or less emphasis on the task, and more or less emphasis on the relationships  with the people theyre leading, depending on whats needed to get the job done successfully. We will look at situational leadership more close later on. Transformational Leadership The leadership style called transformational leadership is often the most effective approach to use. Transformational leaders have integrity, they inspire people with a shared vision of the future, they set clear goals, they motivate people towards these goals, they manage delivery, and they communicate well with their teams. Transformational leaders are inspiring because they expect the best from everyone on their team as well as themselves. This leads to high productivity and engagement from everyone in their team. In many organisations, both transactional and transformational leadership styles are useful. Transactional leaders (or managers) ensure that routine work is done reliably, while transformational leaders look after initiatives that add new value. Its also important to use other leadership styles when necessary – this will depend on the people youre leading and the situation that youre in. Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s continuum The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum is a simple model of leadership theory which shows the relationship between the level of freedom that a manager chooses to give to a team, and the level of authority used by the manager. As the teams freedom is increased, so the managers authority decreases. This is a positive way for both teams and managers to develop. Over time, a manager should aim to take the team from one end to the other, up the scale, at which point you should also aim to have developed one or a  number of potential successors from within your team to take over from you. When examining and applying the Tannenbaum and Schmidt principles, its extremely important to remember: irrespective of the amount of responsibility and freedom delegated by a manager to a team, the manager retains accountability for any catastrophic problems that result. Delegating freedom and decision-making responsibility to a team absolutely does not absolve the manager of accountability. Thats why delegating, whether to teams or individuals, requires a very grown-up manager. If everything goes well, the team must get the credit; if it all goes horribly wrong, the manager must take the blame. This is entirely fair, because the manager is ultimately responsible for judging the seriousness of any given situation including the risks entailed and the level of freedom that can safely be granted to the team to deal with it. This is not actually part of the Tannebaum and Schmidt Continuum, but its vital to apply this philosophy or the model will definitely be weakened, or at worse completely back-fire. Here are the Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum levels of delegated freedom, with some added explanation that should make it easier to understand and apply. 1.The Manager decides and announces the decision The manager reviews options in light of aims, issues, priorities, timescale, etc., then decides the action and informs the team of the decision. The manager will probably have considered how the team will react, but the team plays no active part in making the decision. The team may well perceive that the manager has not considered the teams welfare at all. This is seen by the team as a purely task-based decision, which is generally a characteristic of X-Theory management style. 2.The manager decides and then sells the decision to the group The manager makes the decision as in 1 above, and then explains reasons for the decision to the team, particularly the positive benefits that the team will enjoy from the decision. In so doing the manager is seen by the team to recognise the teams importance, and to have some concern for the team. 3.The manager presents the decision with background ideas and invites questions The manager presents the decision along with some of the background which led to the decision. The team is invited to ask questions and discuss with the manager the rationale behind the decision, which enables the team to understand and accept or agree with the decision more easily than in 1 and 2 above. This more participative and involving approach enables the team to appreciate the issues and reasons for the decision, and the implications of all the options. This will have a more motivational approach than 1 or 2 because of the higher level of team involvement and discussion. 4.The manager suggests a provisional decision and invites discussion about it The manager discusses and reviews the provisional decision with the team on the basis that the manager will take on board the views and then finally decide. This enables the team to have some real influence over the shape of the managers final decision. This also acknowledges that the team has something to contribute to the decision-making process, which is more involving and therefore motivating than the previous level. 5.The manager presents the situation or problem, gets suggestions, then decides The manager presents the situation, and maybe some options, to the team. The team is encouraged and expected to offer ideas and additional options, and discuss implications of each possible course of action. The manager then decides which option to take. This level is one of high and specific involvement for the team, and is appropriate particularly when the team has more detailed knowledge or experience of the issues than the manager. Being  high-involvement and high-influence for the team this level provides more motivation and freedom than any previous level. 6.The manager explains the situation, defines the parameters and asks the team to decide At this level the manager has effectively delegated responsibility for the decision to the team, albeit within the managers stated limits. The manager may or may not choose to be a part of the team which decides. While this level appears to gives a huge responsibility to the team, the manager can control the risk and outcomes to an extent, according to the constraints that he stipulates. This level is more motivational than any previous, and requires a mature team for any serious situation or problem. (Remember that the team must get the credit for all the positive outcomes from the decision, while the manager remains accountable for any resulting problems or disasters. This isnt strictly included in the original Tannenbaum and Schmidt definitions, so it needs pointing out because its such an important aspect of delegating and motivating, and leadership.) 7.The manager allows the team to identify the problem, develop the options, and decide on the action, within the managers received limits This is obviously an extreme level of freedom, whereby the team is effectively doing what the manager did in level 1. The team is given responsibility for identifying and analysing the situation or problem; the process for resolving it; developing and assessing options; evaluating implications, and then deciding on and implementing a course of action. The manager also states in advance that he/she will support the decision and help the team implement it. The manager may or may not be part of the team, and if so then he/she has no more authority than anyone else in the team. The only constraints and parameters for the team are the ones that the manager had imposed on him from above. (Again, the manager retains accountability for any resulting disasters, while the team must get the credit for all successes.) This level is potentially the most motivational of all, but also potentially the most disastrous. Not surprisingly the team  must be mature and competent, and capable of acting a t what is a genuinely strategic decision-making level. Leadership Styles Some basic leadership styles: Directive Frequently described as autocratic. Tells people what to do and expects them to jump to it. Participative Seeks input from others and participates in the decision-making process. Laissez-Faire A hands-off approach allowing for both initiative and the latitude to determine process to effect an outcome Adaptive A fluid style that takes into consideration the context of the environment and the individual being led. Using the techniques of Leadership Situational leadership ® Situational Leadership ® is a concept developed by Paul Hersey, an internationally recognised leading authority on training and development in leadership and management and Kenneth Blanchard, an American author and management expert. Generally when referring to the concept it is safer and correct to show the name as a registered protected trademark as it relates  to business and products by Hersey and Blanchard. Looking at ‘Directive Behaviour’ whereby the leader gives clear defined and detailed instructions, and ‘Supportive Behaviour’ where the leader gives people the freedom to make decisions and support them in their efforts, Hersey and Blanchard moved away from the idea of shifting on a line between the two and consider good leadership as a combination of both. The idea is that the way of combination will vary according to the person being dealt with by the leader, and the situation on which that person operates, hence the term – Situational Leadership ®. The notable features of this model are briefly that the model: focuses on followers (individual team members), rather than wider workplace circumstances; emphasise that leaders should change their behaviour according to the type of followers; proposes a progression of leadership adaptation in response to the development of followers. By combining high and low levels of each type of behaviour we progress towards four distinct styles of leadership. Level Group type Developing D1 Low competence / High commitment D2 Some competence / Low commitment D3 High competence / Variable commitment Developed D4 High competence / High commitment Appropriate leadership styles for each development level: Development Level Appropriate Leadership Style D1 Low competence / High commitment S1 Directing (Structure, control and supervise) D2 Some competence / Low commitment S2 Coaching (Direct and support) D3 High competence / Variable commitment S3 Supporting (Praise, listen and facilitate) D4 High competence / High commitment S4 Delegating (turn over responsibility for day-to-day decision making) Directing:The leader provides specific instructions and closely supervises the task. This style is appropriate for people who lack skill but are committed and eager to learn or those who do not want responsibility and want clear, specific instructions. Coaching:The leader gives some direction and supervision because team members, although they have some competence and commitment, are still relatively inexperienced, therefore require further development. They need support and praise to boost their self-esteem. Their involvement in decision making assists with the development process. Supporting:Even though team members do not need much direction, good support by the leader is still necessary to motivate and boost confidence. Delegating:Team members are both competent and committed therefore leader can give them responsibility for decision making and problem solving with little supervision or support. Power in Organisation Leadership Leadership and power are closely linked. Powerful people are normally those that others follow, so they become the leaders. The five bases of power were identified by John French and Bertram Raven in the early 1960’s through a study they had conducted on power in leadership roles. The study showed how different types of power affected one’s leadership ability and success in a leadership role. They identified five bases of power: 1.Legitimate:This comes from the belief that a person has the formal right to make demands, and to expect compliance and obedience from others. 2.Reward:This results from one persons ability to compensate another for compliance. 3.Expert:This is based on a persons superior skill and knowledge. 4.Referent:This is the result of a persons perceived attractiveness, worthiness, and right to respect from others. 5.CoerciveThis comes from the belief that a person can punish others for noncompliance. If youre aware of these sources of power, you can†¦ Better understand why youre influenced by someone, and decide whether you want to accept the base of power being used. Recognise your own sources of power. Build your leadership skills by using and developing your own sources of power, appropriately, and for best effect. Trust The first task of any leader is to inspire trust. Trust is confidence born of two dimensions: character and competence. Character includes your integrity, motive, and intent with people. Competence includes your capabilities, skills, results, and track record. Both dimensions are vital. The foundation of trust is your own credibility, and it can be a real differentiator for any leader. A persons reputation is a direct reflection of their credibility, and it precedes them in any interactions or negotiations they might have. Behaviours you can adopt to build trust in yourself: Talk Straight Demonstrate Respect Create Transparency Right Wrongs Show Loyalty Deliver Results Get Better Confront Reality Clarify Expectation Practice Accountability Listen First Keep Commitments Extend Trust Bibliography The Wall Street Journal Article: What is the difference between Management and Leadership (last accessed 4 August 2013) (http://guides.wsj.com/management/developing-a-leadership-style/what-is-the-difference-between-management-and-leadership/) The Biz Coach Article: 10 Key Differences between Leaders and Managers (last accessed 4 August 2013) (http://www.bizcoachinfo.com/archives/8426) Techno Funcâ„ ¢ Article: Trait Theory of Leadership (last accessed 4 August 2013) (http://www.technofunc.com/index.php/leadership-skills/leadership-theories/item/trait-theory-of-leadership-2) Article: Behavioural Theories of Leadership (last accessed 7 August 2013) (http://www.technofunc.com/index.php/leadership-skills/leadership-theories/item/behavioral-theories-of-leadership) About.com – Psychology Article: Psychology Theories (last accessed 7 August 2013) (http://psychology.about.com/od/psychology101/u/psychology-theories.htm) Research Methodology Article: Theory X and Theory Y (last accessed 7 August 2013) (http://research-methodology.net/theory-x-and-theory-y/) Mind Tools Article: Theory X and Theory Y (last accessed 7 August 2013) (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_74.htm) Article: Fiedler’s Contingency Model (last accessed 11 August 2013) (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/fiedler.htm) Article: The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership ® Theory (last accessed 11 August 2013) (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_44.htm) Article: French and Raven’s Five Forms of Power (last accessed 11 August 2013 (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_56.htm) Slideshare Article: Fiedler’s contingency model to leadership (by Bhobotosh Debnath) (last accessed 11 August 2013) (http://www.slideshare.net/bhobotoshdebnath/assignment-on-2) Businessballs.com Article: Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum (last accessed 11 August 2013) (http://www.businessballs.com/tannenbaum.htm) The Build Network Article: Leadership styles to master (last accessed 11 August 2013) (http://thebuildnetwork.com/leadership/4-leadership-styles/) The Fast Track Article: The 5 Types of Power in Leadership (last accessed 11 August 2013) (http://quickbase.intuit.com/blog/2011/08/26/the-5-types-of-power-in-leadership/) Leadership Now Article: How the best leaders build trust (last accessed 11 August 2013) (http://www.leadershipnow.com/CoveyOnTrust.html)

The History Of Pericles History Essay

The History Of Pericles History Essay After winning Persian War of the Greece city-states, Athens became the leader of Greece because of its critical role in the war and its outstanding navy. In 477 B.C., the Greece city-states created the alliance which was called the Delian League. Athens controlled the alliance from the start; it, therefore, collected the tribute, commanded the leagues fleets and dictated policy. From Delos to the Acropolis in Athens, in 454 B.C., Athens moved the league treasury. Athens established an empire through the benefit from controlling the Delian. Athenians enjoyed the great political freedom ever, and Greek culture bloomed. The Athenians leader also undertook the beautify-Athens program because Athens was destroyed by Persians in 480 B.C. Athenians strengthened the defensive walls that connected Athens to the busy port of Piraeus. The building program employed thousands of workers. Athens became the center of Greek culture when many talent artists, philosophers, and poets converged on there. The period following the Persians war has been known as the Golden Age of Athens. Who was the leader of Athens during the Golden Age of Athens? He was the great leader who we have known as Pericles. He ruled Athens from 461 B.C. to 429 B.C. In this paper, we will outline you clearly about Pericles family background, military career, foreign policy and his ideas on democracy. Family background and early life Pericles, the son of Xanthippus and Agariste, was born in Athens in the state of Attica in 494 B.C. into a very distinguished Athenian family. His father, Xanthippusa military leader in the Persian Wars in 479 B.C.attaining hero status as a result, victorious at the battle at Mycale, was the son of one Ariphron and the father of another. Ariphron II was a candidate for ostracism. Xanthippus himself was ostracized in spring 484. Pericles mother, Agariste, was a member of the Alcmaeonid family, famous for its long involvement in Athens political history, which was accused of treachery at the Battle of Marathon. The Pericles family is an old lineage that has migrated all across the world over time, and as the name Pericles has migrated, it has changed making its history a challenge to piece together. This Pericles history and genealogy page contains the accumulated history of the Pericles family name made up of user-contributed content from users like you. Pericles family history has a complex evolution of which Pericles family members have accumulated the particulars over the years. During his middle life, many Sophist philosophers came into Athens, and he seemed to have gained full benefit of the society of Zeno and mainly Anaxagoras, from whom he was said to have learned impassivity in the face of trouble and insult and incredulity about unproven godly phenomena. In 472 B.C. Pericles studied music under Damon and mathematics under Zeno of Elea, which was the best education available. Military career Pericles was a general of Athens during the citys Golden Age known specifically as the time between the Persain and Peloponnesian war. Pericles achieved his military career in many wars, such as battle in Sicyon and Acarnania (454 BC), Second Sacred War (448 BC), expulsion of barbarians from Gallipoli (447 BC), Samain War (440 BC), siege of Byzantium (438 BC), and Peloponnesian War (431-429 BC). Meanwhile, many ancient historians had blamed on Pericles and allies were the causes of Peloponnesian war. Peloponnesian war was a war between Athens and Sparta, the leading city-states of ancient Greece, along with their allies, which included nearly every other Greek city-state. Its principal cause was a fear of Athenian imperialism. The Athenian alliance reliance relied on its strong navy, the Spartan alliance on its strong army. The war fell into two periods, which were separated by a six-year truce. In the meantime, Pericles was a commander of Athenians to fight the war breaking out in 431. In the first 10 years, Archidamus led the Spartans to defeat. Plagur strike Athens in 429 and killed Pericles and much of the army. Pericles technically centered his military policy on Themistocless principle that the majority of Athenians depended on its superior naval power and supposed that the Peloponnesians were near invincible on land. He also began a self-protective,the so-called grand strategy whose goal was the collapse of the enemy and the preservation of the status quo. The two basic principles of the Periclean Grand Strategy were the rejection of appeasement (in agreement with which he advised the Athernians not to withdraw the Megarian Decree) and the prevention of overextension. Foreign policy Notably, after he gained political salience in the 450 B.C. at Athens, Pericles had the idea of expanding and strengthening his empire with not only the neighboring but also the other city-states, which were far from Athens. He, therefore, devoted his attention on the foreign policy as his vital political mechanism, which allowed him to partner with many states even his enemy. At the level of a single city-state, his foreign policy consisted of two main goals. They are, first, continuing military action against the Persian presence in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, and second, greater attention to Athenian relations and disputes with other Greek states. To put the matter in another fashion, this foreign policy brought good and bad effect; as a result, the second de facto policy reflected the growing hostility between Athens and Sparta. Throughout the foreign policy, Athens also made the alliances with the Argos and Thessayly, which were Spartas enemies. He also, finally, reache d the truce with the Sparta after battling with either side won the war. Thus, Pericles foreign policy did help to unite not even other states but even the enemy to be friend. Democracy The Persians of Aeschylus was introduced by Pericles at the greater Dionysia as hierurgy, showing that he was rich in Athens in 472 B.C. Pericles choice of the play, which demonstrated a nostalgic picture of Themistocles well-known victory at Salamis, had been argued by Cimon Hornblower. Pericles supported Themistocles to fight against his adversary, Cimon. Plutarch said, democratically, almost forty years, Pericles was the first notable leader among the people in Athens. It meant Pericles had taken a position of leadership by the early 460s B.C. During the years, Pericles tried to conserve his private life and to show himself as a model for his people. For instance, he would often stop holding or joining party and tried to be thrifty. At Areopagus, it consisted of the Athenian aristocracy, which had once had the most powerful leader in the state; the leadership of the Democratic Party decided it was time to take goal in around 462- 461B.C. Ephialeswho was the chief of the party and mentor of Periclessuggested the reduction of the Areopagus power. As a result, the Athenian Assembly, Ecclesia, adopted Ephialtes suggestion with no strong opposition. Without further delay, a new era of radical democracy was started immediately by this reform. In order to coax the public, Pericles seemed to follow a populist policy and the Democratic Party steadily became dominant in Athenian Politics. Apparently, Pericles accomplished the political removal of troublesome adversary by the reason that Cimon crossed up his city by being friendly with Sparta. Pericles kept advocating and promoting a populist social policy after Cimons collapse. With the state covering the cost of their entrance fees, he firstly suggested a law that allowed the indigence to enjoy theatrical plays without paying. With other laws, he decreased the property needs for people in high position in 458- 457 B.C and gave liberal wages on all citizens who served as jurymen in the Heliaia, the supreme court of Athens, just after 454 B.C. But, a law of 451 B.C limited Athenian citizenship to those of Athenian ancestry on both sides was his most disputed action. Such actions made Pericles critics regarded him to be responsible for the progressive deterioration of the Athenian democracy. Some historians have argued that Pericles looked for the enlargement and stabilization of all democratic institutions. Hence, he l egislated law granting the indigence to access to the political system and the public offices from which they had formally been barred because of limited means or low-born. On the other hand, Cimon was sure that democracy had reached its peak, and stalemate of populism had been led by Pericles reforms, so he surly believed that no further free space for democratic evolution existed. Like Cimon, the other historical experts believed that because of Pericles reform, Athens sank into the abyss of political turmoil and demagogy after his dead. Pericles is called a populist, a demagogue and a hawk by some contemporary scholars, while others adore his charming leadership. Plutarch said that Pericles was not a man whom he knew before; he was biddable to the people and ready to give in to the desires of the multitude as a steersman to the breezes. It is told that when Spartas king, Archidamus, asked his political adversary Thucydides, who was the better fighter between two of them, Thucydides answered without any dither that Pericles was better because even when he was beaten, he tried to persuade the spectators that he had won. Thucydides, an admirer of Pericles, said that Athens was nominal democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizen. The historians have explained what he perceived as Pericles charisma to lead, convince and, sometimes, to manipulate through this comment. Even though, Thucydides pointed out the fining of Pericles, he did not refer to the condemnation against Pericles but focused on Pericles honesty. In one of his dialogues, on the other hand, Plato denied the praise of Pericles and said that Pericles made the Athenians lazy, talkative and greedy, by beginning the system of public fees. Plutarch pointed out other criticisms of Pericles leadership that many others say that he first led on the peoples into allotments of public lands, festival-grants, and distributions of fees for public services; due to these reasons, they fell into bad habits and became sumptuous under the effect of his public action instead of thrifty and self-contained. Thucydides argued that the people did not carry away Pericles, but he guided the people. His decision has been questioned; some 20th-century critics, such as Malcolm F. McGregor proposed that he might have been a charming public face acting to be supported on the suggestions of advisors, or the people themselves. According to the King, by increasing the power of the people, the Athenians left themselves with no authoritative leader. During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles depended on his popular to govern was obvious. In the literary works of his Golden Age, we can find Pericles most visible legacy, most of which survive to this day. First, The Acropolis, though it is in ruins, still stands and is a symbol of modem Athens. In politics, Athenian imperialism is the remarkable legacy of Pericles. It denies the true democracy and freedom to the people at all but the ruling state. Finally, the freedom of expression is regarded as the lasting legacy deriving from this period. Conclusion Pericles, the greatest statesman of ancient Greece, was born 494 B.C in the wealthy family. His father was that Xanthippus who won the victory over the Persians at Mycale, 479 B.C.; and his mother, Agariste, the niece of the great Athenian reformer, Cleisthenes. He received an extravagant education; his teacher whom he most reverenced was the quiet and gentle philosopher, Anaxagoras. Pericles was noticeable all through his career for the singular dignity of his manners, the Olympian grandeur of his articulacy, his majestic intelligence in Platos phrase, his wisdom, integrity, and deep Athenian patriotism. The abilities of Pericles were supreme that he quickly rose to the highest power in the state as the leader of the dominant democracy. His successful expeditions to the Thracian Chersonese, and to Sinope on the Black Sea, together with his colonies planted at Naxos, Andros, Oreus in Euboea, Brea in Macedonia, and AEgina, as well as Thurii in Italy, and Amphipolis on the Strymon, did much to spread and confirm the naval power of Athens, and afford a means of subsistence for his poorer citizens. But his greatest project was to create, in concert with the other Hellenic states, a grand Hellenic confederation in order to put an end to the mutually destructive wars of kindred peoples, and to make Greece one enormous nation, fit to front the outlying world. After Cimon was dead and Thucydides was disliked, and came into the end of his life, Pericles reigned the undisputed master of the public policy of Athens. During the rest of his career there was, says the historian Thucydides, in name a democracy, but in reality a government in the hands of the first man. Soon after the Samian war broke out, in which Pericles gained high renown as a naval commander. The Samians, after a stubborn struggle, were beaten, and a peace was established. Since the time of the Persian invasion, he had been the leader of the confederacy formed to fight the attacks of the powerful enemy, and the guardian of the confederate treasury kept in the isle of Delos. Pericles caused the treasury to be removed to Athens, and commuting the commissions of the allies for money, enormously increased the contributions to the patriotic fund, Athens herself undertaking to protect the confederacy. He decorated and enriched Athens with the spoils of the allied states. Pericles did many things to make his native city the most magnificent in the ancient world. Under his patronage, Greek architecture and sculpture reached perfection. He remained Athens the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, left unfinished at his death, the Propylaea, the Odeum, and numerous other public and holy edifices; he also liberally stimulated music and the drama; and during his life, industry and commerce was in so well-off a condition that prosperity was universal in Attica. In 431, the long foreseen and inevitable Peloponnesian war broke out between Athens and Sparta. The plague damaged the city in 430, and in the autumn of the following year, Pericles died after a prolonged fever. As a greatest statesman, Pericles was a lofty-minded statesman, motivated by noble objectives, and his heart was full of a honorable love for the city and his citizens. When he lay dying and speciously insensible, his friends around his bed were passing in review the great accomplishments of his life, and the nine cups which he had founded at different times for so many triumphs. The dying patriot silently interrupted with the typical sentence: What you praise in my life belongs partly to good fortune, and is, at best, common to me with many generals. But that of which I am proudest, you have left unnoticedno Athenian has ever put on mourning through any act of mine.

The Genre Of Documentary Photography

The Genre Of Documentary Photography In his examination of Lt. Col. Oliver L. Norths portrait, taken by Harry Benson for Life Magazine (1987), Andy Grundberg (1988) emphasizes the importance of the camera position, background elements and attitude of the subject towards a heroic appearance, even though the reality was somewhat different, visible in another, less interesting news photograph of Colonel North facing the full house of Congress. The juxtaposition of the two photographs makes one think of the kind of information photographs leave behind. Is it an actual reflection of the actuality or something more interpretable and selective? Putting this into the perspective of the pre-photographic history one could say that photographs are better representations of the historical events than say, paintings or drawings. Nevertheless this is not entirely true because photography can also be biased exactly as a painting using different capturing techniques, angles, and recently computer aided photo manipulation which makes everything so much easier to tamper with. John Griersons which is generally accepted as being the father of the documentary genre characterized it as the creative treatment of actuality. The first question that comes to my mind is why did he use the term actuality and not reality? For this we have to take a look at the definition of actuality. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary actual means existing in fact or reality. In my opinion reality is what you interpret and you think something is, and actuality is what it really is by looking at the facts. Reality and actuality are strongly connected and one can say that reality is what you perceive from actuality. John Tagg (p.172, 1988) argued that It is not a question of the struggle for truth but, rather, of a struggle around the status of truth and the economic and political role it plays. One of the iconic photographs that apply to this statement is Dorothea Langes Migrant Mother and the extensive debates around the truthfulness of the photograph. Is it that important that the photograph was staged, edited and cropped or not? The point is that even though it might be a staged photograph it still conveys the reality of the time. Lange was sent on assignment for the Farms Security Administration to document the poverty of the share-croppers. The story she associated with the image was not entirely true but it efficiently showed the condition of the migrant workers. It is arguable that the changes made to the original Migrant Mother photograph created the notoriety of the image (i.e. the editing out of the thumb, and the possible staging of the photograph). If we look at some of the other images from the shoot we can see clearly that at least one of the children is smiling. This could lead to the belief that Lange posed the two children with their faces behind her mother to hide their light heartedness. The final portray and the iconic image of the Migrant Mother is relating to what Grierson refers as creative treatment of actuality and nevertheless a reality for everyone who saw the image at the time. Another very well-known photograph which had a lot of debate whether is true or not, is one made by Duane Michals called This Photograph is My Proof. Duane admitted  [1]  he is gay in many of his interviews, so how can this photograph be true? He realised he is gay before his 20s and the photograph is taken when he was in his 30s thus leading us to think the photograph was staged. Tagg (p.16, 1993) argued that The camera seems to declare: This really happened. The camera was there. See for yourself. Ask yourself under what conditions would a photograph of the Loch Ness Monster or an Unidentified Flying Object become acceptable as proof of their existence? It seems that for Tagg the actuality of a photograph can only be proven by other means and not only by the photo on itself. The general belief is that photography is an objective medium able to portray an objective reality, but if we think about it one photograph is just one point of view. Just by changing the angle in which you take the photograph you can change its whole meaning. Edward Weston and Paul Strand were among the ones that strongly believed the mechanical nature of the camera is the most powerful argument for the truthfulness of photographs. In the book On photography, Sontag argues that (p176, To us, the difference between the photographer as an individual eye and the photographer as an objective recorder seems fundamental, the difference often regarded, mistakenly, as separating photography as art from photography as document. But both are logical extensions of what photography means: note-taking on, potentially, everything in the world, from every possible angle. This approach suggests that every image taken for artistic purposes or for recording purposes has a documentary quality. It means that even though someone took a photograph for aesthetic purposes its still a recording, but from another point of view. She further explains that the two attitudes underlie the presumption that anything in the world is material to the camera. If we could photograph the same subject from every angle by many different creative eyes we could end up with a series of images that show the actuality. Martin Parr had a different approach on documentary photography adding humour and irony to almost If not all of his photographs. He has a unique way of telling a story which is often harsh. His creative style is covered in irony, and this generates a very strong statement about society. His approach seems to be very close to actuality even if his unique style is very distinct. In her book called Documentary Dilemmas, Caroline Anderson (p.1, 1991) talks about Frederick Wiseman and his documentary film Titicut Follies saying that he (i.e. Wiseman) considered his films as reality fictions. Anderson (p.1, 1991) argues that Wiseman didnt want to be responsible for representing social actuality in an objective manner. He used the ambiguous term of reality fiction as an excuse to be able to classify his work in both documentary genre and as an artistic creation. Anderson (p.2, 1991) claims that Wiseman used the term of reality fiction as a claim upon film theory and not to point at the inevitable tension between actuality and film. Nevertheless Titicut Follies is still a documentary film. Elizabeth Cowie (p.22, 2011) referring to the recording of actuality in both photography and film, claims that two different predilections exist. There is the need for reality as a fact and the ability to review it, and on the other hand there is the need of rational knowledge, conveyed through logical interpretation. This idea reflects upon John Griersons creative treatment of actuality in a sense that a documentary creation has to represent the actuality but also to help the viewer see the reality which the creator wants to deliver. Looking at my own photographs for an example of Griersons statement I chose a photograph which shows a woman sleeping on the pavement between two bags that read A bag For Life. This photograph was taken a few steps from my place and could be a good example of the creative treatment of actuality. My intention was to articulate the fact that the woman was homeless but the reality is she can be anyone and anything and she just happened to enjoy the sunshine. A while ago I was asking myself if documentary photography is the middle ground between art and actuality. I was putting actuality, documentary photography and fine art photography in a hierarchy, fine art photography being on the highest ranks. This is because actuality on its own is not interesting, it does not have that spark of genius documentary photography and it does not have the creative approach of fine art photography. One of the best examples of how documentary photography shed light on the social injustices around the world is the Magnum Agency. Founded by Robert Capa, Henri Cartier- Bresson, George Rodger and David Chim Seymour the agency had, and still has, the purpose of chronicle the world through the distinctive eyes of each member thus creating a complete image of the society. Documentary photography indeed can be seen as a genre which binds the aspirations of photojournalism with the ones of photographic art, thus becoming a kind of bridge or grey area, if you like. The main characteristic of documentary photography is the appetite for social subjects that go beyond the simple story in the newspaper, becoming increasingly subjective but at the same time holding a grip to actuality and truth. For me creativity represents the fingerprint which the photographer applies to the raw actuality with the purpose of creating his own reality to share with the world.

Mountain Meadows Massacre and the Supernatural :: Juanita Brooks Historian History Essays

Mountain Meadows Massacre and the Supernatural Works Cited Missing Juanita Brooks has her work set out for her: she needs to explain a historical event that has long been ignored and lied about. She must avoid sounding biased and present herself as a reputable historian. One of her challenges in this undertaking is how she should deal with the large amounts of supernaturalism surrounding the Mountain Meadows Massacre. Although she does periodically use some supernatural accounts for dramatic evidence and to support her own hypothesis in small amounts, Brooks typically discredits the supernatural aspects (both folkloric and religious) of the Mountain Meadows Massacre, While Brooks is capable of dismissing the supernatural in folklore traditions, and also in her own religion, she does sometimes lapse into giving ear to supernaturalism. Frequently this is for effect, such as while describing a Mormon woman living in fear of the mobs in Illinois who feels a "heavy foreboding of evil" and flees, joining "other wagons†¦all impelled by the certainty that to remain long would mean death" (8). Brooks doesn't dismiss this prompting as a superstitious story but as a factual experience. Likely for the same dramatic effect, she includes that Brigham Young, whom she later evaluates as a man and not a prophet, "had predicted that 'if our enemies would give us ten years unmolested †¦ we would never be driven again.' Well, the ten years were up, ten years to the day" (18). As a historian writing a book for lay people, Brooks may be excused for these inclusions of dramatic intent; however she makes the mistake in including supernatural evidence in her defense of John D. Lee. She relates how when a little girl was gravely sick, Lee "kneeled by her bed and prayed for her. He promised her that she should live and become a mother in Israel. She was instantly healed" (203). Brooks relates a second related account. Lee promised another sick girl that she "should live to be a mother in Israel. She grew up to womanhood†¦and has sixteen children" (204). These supernatural stories are not qualified at all, but left to stand on their own before Brooks informs us that descendents of Lee "feel that he was a great and good man-a martyr" (204). These two recollections may also serve a dramatic purpose, but the acceptance of faith healing by an individual she defends weakens Brooks' objectivity as a historian.

Knowledge Of Information :: essays research papers

Knowledge of Information DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE: Ralph is a recent widower in his midi-60's, who was diagnosed with metatastasized colon cancer. He is a home health agency patient, and his primary caregivers are his two daughters. Ralph is unaware of the severity of his condition and wanted to know what his state of health and prognosis were. The nurse evaded his questions initially, and his daughters did not want to tell him that his cancer was terminal. The nurse's position was not to continue providing care for Ralph, as she would be deceiving him by not telling him the truth. When the nurse consulted with Ralph's physician, he agreed with the family's decision, as he felt that they needed time to accept their mother's recent death and Ralph's impending death. The doctor ordered the nurse not to oppose him and not to disclose any further infomation to Ralph. THE PRINCIPLE: TRUTH-TELLING & DECEPTION (Should be "FIDELITY") In most cases, a rational person has a right to truthful information and avoidance of deception, which will allow him to decide which course of treatment to follow. A patient's right to decide includes the right to know the truth, not be brainwashed, and not be lied to or deceived by having information withheld that is relevant to his own health. There is a moral standard that condemns lies, deception and withholding of relevant information. To tell Ralph that "everything was all right and he would be up and around the house in no time at all" is deceptive, as his condition is terminal, although he does not yet realize it. The ANA Standards of Clinical Nursing Practice states that clients should be educated about ther illness, which is subsumed within Standards of Care (p3). In Standard V-Ethics (p15), measurement criteria #3 states that "the nurse acts as a client advocate" and #5 states the "nurse delivers care in a manner that preserves and protects client autonomy, dignity and rights". The "Patient's Bill of Rights" cites somes cases that justify overriding a patient's autonomy rights, however. Considering that Ralph has recently lost his wife and that he is still working through his own grief may present a morally compelling reason for withholding information and considering Ralph's best interests. His emotional status may need to be assessed to assure that he would not be suicidal or lose interest in the remaining quality of his life, also to determine his ability to cope, before telling him the truth, and prevention of harm overrides autonomy rights. If I were involved in Ralph's care as his nurse, I would have great difficulty

La Moulin Galette

Michael Priddy Angela Brasser, Adjunct Professor Art 100 November 8, 2010 Le Moulin De La Galette The year was 1876 when Pierre Augustus Renoir painted his Le Moulin De La Galette this piece of art was in the style of impressionism. This was a fairly new art style during these years thus making it very popular at the time. Renoir’s works has endured the test of time with the popularity of his art and is still one of history’s more prominent artists.The painting itself was an open-air oil portrait on canvas that measured 4ft. 3in. X5ft. 8in. the composition of the painting was of a large outdoor gathering of music and dancing which included many of Renoir’s friends, including one of his closest friends Georges Rivie`re. The following year while at the third impressionist exhibit of 1877 Rivie`re described the painting as follows: â€Å"It is a page of history, a precious monument to Parisian life, Done with rigorous exactitude.No one before Renoir had thought of portraying an event in ordinary life on a canvas of such big dimensions† (Rivie`re quote, Sayer 493) The type of line generally employed throughout the painting is primarily expressive and flowing, this is generally type of line impressionist used in their paintings. When Renoir painted this portrait his use of line seemed to soften the overall look of the painting. While there are areas in the painting where the artist’s line are more structured and deliberate the overall feel of the painting is that the line is free flowing and expressive.Renoir’s use of space is very precisely controlled by the overlapping of figures in the painting to create the feel of a large outdoor courtyard. While the overlapping of the figures create the feel of an open courtyard, it also portrays at the same time how completely cramped and crowded the dance area seems to be, this also helps define the space and also creates a feel of movement in the painting. Renoir’s scale that he placed on the table and the people around it, compared to the dancers in the rest of the painting helped the viewer take in the entire painting and gave it a sense of balance.The colors in the paintings palette were mostly analogous cool colors of different shades of blues and greens. There are other colors used in the painting and these are used in the complementary manner in order to intensify each color, there were fewer areas of complementary colors in the painting this was probably done in this manner to keep your eyes going to different focal points in the painting. Impressionism is a style of painting that uses a command of light and shadows and colors by discontinuous brush strokes to represent the effects of light.It shows that light can be reflected to show color in shadows and not just the brown or black darkness of a shadow that is typically described as a shadow. To many this mastery and skill of using light is one of the most important skills in painting. Renoir co mpletely showed his skill of adding light to his portraits by creating a feel of the sun cascading through the canopy of trees in the courtyard. All through the painting the viewer will see small streams of light gently falling onto the people and furnishings in the courtyard.There does seem to be a repeating pattern in the painting especially in the way the same colors are used throughout the painting and how there seems to be certain figures looking directly towards you. By the way Renoir used this type of line orientation also helps in defining the relationship of space by having different figures looking directly at you from different levels in the painting thus creating a feel of spatial depth.The focal point and emphasis of the painting seems to have been placed on the area where the woman is leaning down with her hand placed upon the young girl in the striped dress, the lady is in conversation with one of the young men at the table. The young girl has her gaze focused beyond the scope of the painting possibly watching the band as they play the music that the group is enjoying and dancing too or maybe another activity that has caught her attention.One of the identifiable figures in the painting was of the male who is seated at the table to the far right who seems to be either writing or possibly sketching the lady, who used as the focal point, by the way he is so closely looking at her trying either to take in all she is saying or to study her for his sketch. That male figure in fact is of Georges Rivie`re the friend of Renoir who was mentioned earlier. The painting has used asymmetrical balance; this type of approach differs from symmetrical balance, which is when there are components on each side of the portrait that mirror each other (Sayer 145).Another way Renoir created and shown asymmetrical balance in this portrait was from the larger area of the table and the guests around it and how it compared to the other areas of where the dancers have gather ed. Also the darker and more prominent areas of the painting are balanced by the open area where the sunlight seems to show an area of the ground. By doing this the artist has added the balance of the lightened area to the shaded darker area, and also the area of less activity to area of the dance floor, by doing this you are again drawn back to the focal point of the painting.This analysis has focused on certain parts of Renoir’s La Moulin De La Galette, but a viewer must try to be able see how each of the parts simply compliment each other to completely appreciate this wonderful art work. People have often stated many times in the past that â€Å"I don’t know art, but I know what I like† with this attitude a viewer will be able to enjoy this painting immensely, but when you realize and see the way Renoir used so many artistic tools and techniques to achieve this work of art, then the viewer will be able actually to appreciate this art work.The skill and though t that have been used on this painting is obviously evident. Most of Renoir’s paintings have a more somber feel and approach, but this painting depicts a fun and lighthearted day that was overly filled with dancing, music and wine that was enjoyed by all in attendance. {Total word count 1103}Work cited Sayer, Henry M. The World of Art. Ed. Leah Jewell published by Pearson Education Inc. as Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Printed text

African American English Essay

When it comes to arguing whether African-American English/Ebonics, enriches or contaminates Standard English, most of the negative tone that African-American English gets comes from an educational stand point. One argument teachers, who do not believe in using Ebonics, use is that there is no place for Ebonics in the class room. Stacey Thomas, in her article â€Å"Ebonics and the African-American Student: Why Ebonics Has a Place in the Classroom† writes that teachers can use Ebonics as a way to facilitate the learning of Standard English to African American students. In order to use Ebonics as a vehicle to teaching Standard English, teachers must be bilingual; meaning they most know both Ebonics and Standard English. Thomas states, â€Å"†¦once students see and comprehend the differences between Standard English and Ebonics in terms of structure and syntax, they display a great[er] understanding in Standard English, and as a result, decrease their use of Ebonics† Ebonics and the African-American Student (6). In other words, by working on activities where students have to compare both Ebonics and Standard English, students’ knowledge of Standard English is increasing and their use of Ebonics is decreasing. Another arguments teachers use against Ebonics is that it obstructs the academic potential of African-Americans. Thomas goes further on by stating the Oakland school board Ebonics issue. In 1996, the Oakland, California school board started using Ebonics as a way to teach to African American students whose grades were lower than other ethnicities. As a result of using Ebonics as a vehicle to teaching, Thomas states, â€Å"the Oakland School District’s use of Ebonics in the classroom, [and] the students’ performance in reading and wring has improved†¦ the students have tested above district averages there was a in reading and writing skills† Ebonics and the African-American Student (6). So not only is the teaching of Ebonics facilitating school work for students, but it is also increasing their grades. Ebonics, a language that is stereotyped as ignorant and uneducated, is now becoming a great tool for educating students.